Yemen

Research conducted in November 2025

Dementia management in Yemen is defined by many gaps — there are no standardised diagnostic or care pathways, no specialised services like memory clinics or geriatric wards, and little training for healthcare professionals in dementia care. The collapse of the health care system in light of the Yemeni Civil War has shifted the entire burden of care onto families, who receive no financial assistance, social protection, or respite support from the state. However, the work of non-profit organizations, such as the Yemen Foundation Against ALZ Dementia (YFAAD) provide a beacon of hope for people living with dementia, their families and caregivers in Yemen, and demonstrate that, even with little resources, much could be achieved in supporting those suffering from the illness and raising awareness about the issues they face, especially in a unique, conflict-ridden context.

Overall
AD Rating
Diagnostic Pathway
In Yemen, the Alzheimer’s diagnostic pathway is effectively non-existent, with systemic collapse, extreme workforce shortages, and financial barriers preventing access to even basic cognitive assessment or specialist diagnosis.
Specialized Care
Alzheimer’s care in Yemen is extremely limited, with few urban hospitals offering specialised services, scarce palliative and long-term care, and most treatment and medications paid out-of-pocket, leaving families heavily reliant on ad hoc NGO support.
Caregiver Support
In Yemen, dementia caregiving is primarily supported by NGOs providing informational and peer networks, with virtually no formal state assistance, leaving families to bear most of the burden.
National Policies
Yemen lacks a national dementia strategy, with existing mental health and healthcare policies providing only indirect guidance, and no clear plans to establish a dedicated Alzheimer’s or dementia plan in the near future.
Access to ATT-s
No therapies approved.
Organizations are listed for informational purposes based on publicly available sources. Inclusion does not necessarily indicate affiliation with or endorsement by Alzheimer’s Disease International (ADI).

Highlights

Health system
Non - universal, mixed funding (mixed provision)
National dementia plan
No national dementia strategy in place.
Dementia plan funding
No plan
Dementia prevalence rate
225.7
Dementia incidence rate
39.9
*per 100k Population
Prevalence Rate (per 100,000): 
This measures the total number of existing cases (both old and new) in a population at a specific point in time, divided by the total population and multiplied by 100,000. It tells you the overall "burden" or how widespread a condition is at that moment.
Incidence Rate (per 100,000): 
This measures the number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific period (usually one year), divided by the population at risk and multiplied by 100,000. This tells you the "speed" or risk of contracting the condition.

Population

41,773,878

Median age

18

Health expenditure (% of GDP)

6.19

Diagnosis

Yemen’s decade-long conflict has devastated healthcare, leaving only half of facilities functional and severe shortages of physicians, beds, and medical supplies. specialised dementia services are largely absent, with few trained healthcare workers and minimal cognitive screening, neuroimaging, or genetic testing available. Most care is unaffordable, relying on out-of-pocket payments, while NGOs like YFAAD provide limited support. Rural populations face significant access barriers, long wait times, and scarce specialist care, resulting in most dementia cases going undiagnosed. An estimated 51-56,000 Yemenis have dementia, though most remain undiagnosed due to systemic, financial, and infrastructural barriers.

Diagnosis pathway

Over a decade of conflict has devastated Yemen’s healthcare system, leaving only half of facilities functional and severe shortages of physicians, hospital beds, and medical supplies. specialised dementia services are nearly absent, with limited trained staff, scarce specialists, and expensive neuroimaging, such as CT and MRI. Estimates indicate 51-56,000 dementia patients, with economic costs of $32-61 million, though most cases remain undiagnosed due to systemic and infrastructural challenges.

Yemen has been under an armed conflict for over a decade, which prompted a humanitarian and health crisis. Approximately 17.8 million people need health assistance, while only about 51% of health facilities are functioning, with only 10 hospital beds and 5 physicians per 100 thousand people. Limited access to healthcare, lack of salaries for health staff, damage to health facilities, and difficulties in importing medicines and medical supplies exacerbate the situation. Even before the Civil War, Yemen relied on external funding and assistance to maintain healthcare services provision, and a majority of funding for the system came from out of pocket payments.

In Yemen, there is a pronounced absence of specialised services for dementia care and treatment, and a majority of healthcare workers have limited training or access to resources in order to timely diagnose patients living with Alzheimer’s disease or related dementias, or provide appropriate treatment or care. Prolonged violence and instability have impeded the establishment of formal dementia care infrastructure. What is more, obtaining a reliable image of dementia prevalence in Yemen is difficult, and a majority of dementia cases in the country are undiagnosed. A recent study estimates that there are between 51 and 56 thousand people living with dementia in Yemen (2021), while the total economic expenses from dementia care ranges between 32 and 61 million USD (2021).

Around 18% of districts that form the Yemeni health system do not have doctors, while most health personnel have not received salaries in over 2 years. The outbreak of the Yemeni Civil War led to a deterioration in working conditions, causing an exodus of medical professionals from the country. Access to primary care physicians, the first point of contact towards a dementia diagnosis, remains difficult for many Yemenis, particularly those outside urban areas, with high costs of transport being a major barrier. Even if able to access a primary care physician, a majority of Yemenis are unable to afford a consultation, considering that its costs are primarily covered out of pocket. If able to afford one, they could be referred to a neurologist or a geriatric specialist for further evaluation. However, that is contingent on the ability of a primary care physician to conduct basic cognitive screening, which is often limited. Gaining access to specialists is even more difficult, and there is no reliable information on their number in Yemen. In 2006, there were 198 psychiatric nurses and 45 psychiatrists and neurologists, a rate of 1 psychiatrist or neurologist per half a million people. What is more, the conduct of comprehensive neuropsychological batteries is rare in Yemen, as many specialists lack adequate training in performing them. Conducting any kind of cognitive screening is further complicated by low levels of literacy in Yemen, with only around 65% of the population considered literate. While a number of public and private health care institutions in Yemen make diagnostic imaging equipment, such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners, available, their number in Yemen is limited. In addition, these services are prohibitively expensive for a majority of Yemenis, complicating efforts at appropriately diagnosing dementia.

Wait times

Long wait time (expected)

Only half of Yemen’s health facilities function, with rural areas severely underserved. Armed conflict, staff shortages, and long wait times further limit access, while specialised care remains scarce and unaffordable. Many are thus unable to meet basic healthcare or even daily living needs.

Only 51% of health facilities in Yemen are functional, and disparities in accessing them are significant, with little coverage in rural areas. In addition, armed violence across the country further complicates access to health facilities, with Yemenis near frontlines often being unable to access their closest health facilities. Even if facing no barriers to physical access, the shortage of healthcare workers in public health care facilities forces people to face very long waiting times in contrast to receiving limited specialised treatment. Not only is accessing specialised treatment and care difficult in Yemen, it is also unaffordable for most Yemenis, with over half of them unable to secure basic foodstuffs due to the humanitarian crisis.

Diagnosis cost

Not covered

Most Yemenis cannot afford Alzheimer’s diagnosis, as healthcare expenses rely heavily on out-of-pocket payments. Primary care, specialist visits, and imaging are expensive and accessible only to the wealthy, while NGOs such as YFAAD provide limited support. Armed conflict severely restricts the ability to expand access to dementia diagnostic services nationwide.

Diagnosing Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias is unaffordable for a majority of Yemenis, as most health care expenses, both in the public and private sectors, are borne by patients directly, through out-of-pocket payments. Even basic consultations with primary care physicians and specialists can be prohibitively expensive, while paying for diagnostic imaging services is viable for only the wealthiest, in practice. A very limited portion of the population has the means necessary to diagnose (and treat) Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias. Efforts by non-governmental organizations (NGOs), such as the Yemen Foundation Against ALZ Dementia (YFAAD) to raise awareness of dementia have facilitated access to diagnostic services for some Yemenis, but the organization has rather limited capabilities in expanding access to them on a grander scale, primarily because of the consequences of the armed conflict.

Cognitive tests

Not available

Information on the use of cognitive screening tests in Yemen is limited. Many primary care physicians in the country lack adequate training in order to perform cognitive screening tests on people who show symptoms of dementia, with a rather low number of dementia diagnoses serving as evidence for this. Some limited evidence points towards the validation and use of the Arabic version of the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) in Yemen.

Imaging tests

Rarely used

Diagnostic imaging services are limited in Yemen, and only offered in a handful of health facilities. Among those offering them are the Al Yemen Assaeed Hospital, Yashfeen Consultant Hospital, Al Razi Scan centre, and the Modern German Hospital in Sana’a, the Marib General Hospital Authority in Marib, or the Prince Mohammed bin Salman Hospital in Aden. Most of these institutions are privately owned, and access to diagnostic imaging in public hospitals is limited. The functionality of diagnostic imaging is also impacted by armed conflict, as adequate maintenance of the equipment is complicated by international sanctions. Unsurprisingly, access to diagnostic imaging is prohibitively expensive for a majority of Yemenis. There is a functional nuclear medicine department in Sana’a featuring a positron emission tomography (PET) scanner, but it caters primarily to oncology. In addition, as of 2016, there were only 17 nuclear medicine specialists present in Yemen.

Genetic tests

There is little information on the availability of tests such as apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype investigation in Yemen.

Biomarker tests

Rarely used

There is little information on the availability of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) testing designed to detect β-amyloid and phosphorylated tau (p-tau) protein deposits in Yemen. No medical literature directly refers to the conduct of such tests in the country.

Cognitive Tests

Not available

Information on the use of cognitive screening tests in Yemen is limited. Many primary care physicians in the country lack adequate training in order to perform cognitive screening tests on people who show symptoms of dementia, with a rather low number of dementia diagnoses serving as evidence for this. Some limited evidence points towards the validation and use of the Arabic version of the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) in Yemen.

Imaging Tests

Rarely used

Diagnostic imaging services are limited in Yemen, and only offered in a handful of health facilities. Among those offering them are the Al Yemen Assaeed Hospital, Yashfeen Consultant Hospital, Al Razi Scan centre, and the Modern German Hospital in Sana’a, the Marib General Hospital Authority in Marib, or the Prince Mohammed bin Salman Hospital in Aden. Most of these institutions are privately owned, and access to diagnostic imaging in public hospitals is limited. The functionality of diagnostic imaging is also impacted by armed conflict, as adequate maintenance of the equipment is complicated by international sanctions. Unsurprisingly, access to diagnostic imaging is prohibitively expensive for a majority of Yemenis. There is a functional nuclear medicine department in Sana’a featuring a positron emission tomography (PET) scanner, but it caters primarily to oncology. In addition, as of 2016, there were only 17 nuclear medicine specialists present in Yemen.

Biomarker Tests

Rarely used

There is little information on the availability of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) testing designed to detect β-amyloid and phosphorylated tau (p-tau) protein deposits in Yemen. No medical literature directly refers to the conduct of such tests in the country.

Treatment & Care

Dementia care in Yemen is extremely limited, with few specialised hospitals, scarce palliative services, and minimal community support, largely provided by YFAAD. Treatment is largely unaffordable due to medication shortages and out-of-pocket costs, contributing to an estimated economic burden of $32-61 million (2021). Families rely heavily on NGOs for caregiver guidance and support.

Specialized facilities and services

Dementia care in Yemen is highly limited, with few hospitals in urban areas offering specialised neurology services. Al Thawrah Modern General Hospital and Al Yemen Assaeed Hospital in Sana’a provide treatment and diagnostic imaging, while Aden’s Neuropsychiatric Teaching Hospital functions below capacity due to funding and staff shortages. Palliative care units are rare, with few accessible to dementia patients. Community support is nearly nonexistent, with YFAAD providing limited online channels and ad hoc events, leaving most patients and caregivers without organised assistance.

There are few hospitals providing specialised services for people living with dementia in Yemen. A limited number of private and public hospitals, largely concentrated in urban areas, have dedicated neurology centres.

(1) Al Thawrah Modern General Hospital in Sana’a is the largest public hospital in Yemen, specializing in many medical fields, including neurology. It is a tertiary referral hospital with advanced healthcare services, including a nuclear medicine centre, and, as such, is equipped to provide treatment and care to people living with dementia. Despite this, like most institutions in Yemen, Al Thawra Modern General Hospital suffers from shortages of necessary medicines and medical devices.

(2) Al Yemen Assaeed Hospital, in Sana’a, is a private hospital which maintains a centre for Neurosurgery and Spine on its premises, employing qualified neurological specialists. Moreover, the hospital offers diagnostic imaging services, meaning that it is one of the rare institutions in Yemen which has the ability to provide comprehensive diagnostic, treatment and care services to people living with dementia.

(3) The Neuropsychiatric Teaching Hospital in Aden is the oldest psychiatric hospital on the Arabian Peninsula, specializing in treating mental illnesses. A recent report notes that the hospital is operating at only 20% of its capacity, primarily due to lack of funding, shortages of medical supplies and staff, and issues with equipment maintenance.

While there is a great need for palliative care in Yemen, particularly once the consequences of armed conflict are taken into consideration, the number of facilities providing palliative care in the country is low. Yemen faces a vast unmet need for palliative care to prevent and relieve moderate and severe suffering that is highly prevalent among people living with serious illnesses. A recent study, conducted in the largest tertiary hospitals in Sana’a, outlines the state of palliative care units in the city, with a majority of nurses holding negative attitudes on the current state of palliative care provision in Yemen. In addition, it remains unclear whether people living with dementia were among the beneficiaries of palliative care units in these hospitals.

When it comes to long term care facilities or nursing homes, demand far outweighs the supply in Yemen. Getting a place in a nursing home is a practical impossibility in Yemen, and only those in private or foundational ownership continue to operate, with the government being reluctant to commit funding towards expanding their operation.

Apart from the fora provided by the Yemen Foundation Against ALZ Dementia (YFAAD), there is no evidence of organised community care provision for people living with dementia, their families and caregivers. Events are organised on an ad hoc basis, with most support provided through online channels.

Approved medication

Generic Name Trade Name Used for
Donepezil Aricept, Aricept ODT, Adlarity, Eranz, Memac, Alzepil, Davia, Donecept, Donep, Donepex, Donesyn, Dopezil, Yasnal, Memorit, Pezale, Redumas, Zolpezil, Namzaric* Donepezil is indicated for the symptomatic treatment of mild to moderately severe Alzheimer’s dementia.
Galantamine Razadyne, Razadyne ER, Reminyl, Reminyl XL, Nivalin, Lycoremine, Galsya Galantamine is indicated for the symptomatic treatment of mild to moderately severe dementia of the Alzheimer type.
Memantine Namenda, Namenda XR, Ebixa, Memary, Axura, Akatinol, Maruxa, Nemdatine, Namzaric* Treatment of adult patients with moderate to severe Alzheimer’s disease.

*Namzaric = combination of Donepezil and Memantine

Treatment cost

Limited data suggest Alzheimer’s care in Yemen is constrained by scarce medications and high patient-paid costs. Most Yemenis cannot afford treatment, contributing to a total dementia-related economic burden of $32-61 million, including $14.7 million in direct expenses (2021).

Little information is available on the cost of treating and caring for people living with Alzheimer’s disease in Yemen. However, it is likely that Yemen is facing shortages of approved medication for treating Alzheimer’s disease, considering that, in general, medical supplies are in short stock. Even when available, it is likely that medication for treating Alzheimer’s disease is unaffordable for most Yemenis, considering that a majority of treatment costs in Yemen are paid out-of-pocket. As mentioned, expenses range between 32 and 61 million USD (2021), out of which direct costs are estimated to be 14,726,594 USD.

Caregiver support

Little to no resources are available for caregiver support in Yemen, and most families caring for people living with dementia (or hired carers) have to rely on NGOs for support. The Yemen Foundation Against ALZ Dementia (YFAAD) offers consultations to carers, organises gatherings where they can meet and exchange experiences, and also maintains a WhatsApp group for the same purpose.

Policy

Yemen lacks a dedicated national dementia strategy, though some government plans address broader mental health and healthcare improvements. The National Mental Health Strategy (2022-2026) and the National Quality of Health Care Strategy (2025-2030) provide guidance, but neither explicitly references Alzheimer’s or dementia. Armed conflict, weak implementation, minimal professional training, and limited specialised services force families to provide care without state assistance, financial support, or respite, leaving dementia largely unaddressed in a system weakened by war and cultural under-recognition.

National dementia plan

Although Yemen lacks a dedicated dementia plan, government strategies provide relevant guidance for mental health and general care. The 2022-2026 National Mental Health Strategy emphasises accessible, evidence-based mental health and psychosocial support, while the 2025-2030 National Quality of Health Care Strategy focuses on systemic healthcare improvements. Implementation is hindered by ongoing conflict, and dementia is not explicitly mentioned in either plan, reflecting cultural attitudes that often do not recognise these conditions as distinct mental health issues.

Yemen currently lacks a national dementia strategy or plan. However, a number of government strategies which outline objectives related to mental health care and general care services are in place, and could be of relevance for people living with dementia. Among these, the most relevant are the National Mental Health Strategy (2022 to 2026) — setting out protocols for tackling mental health issues faced by many Yemenis (including people living with dementia) — and the National Quality of Health Care Strategy (2025 to 2030) — meant to serve as a roadmap for healthcare improvement.

The National Mental Health Strategy (2022 to 2026) aims to enable comprehensive access to high quality curative and preventive services in the field of mental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS) through scientific evidence-based and multidisciplinary practices, ensuring the engagement of the community, sustainability of care, and preservation of the rights of people living with mental illnesses within the local culture. While the goals set out in the Strategy are ambitious, efforts at achieving them continue to be hampered by armed conflict. In addition, while the Strategy broadly focuses on mental health issues, there is no explicit reference to dementia or Alzheimer’s disease, reflective of underlying cultural attitudes towards the illnesses, which tend to lack recognition as distinct mental health issues in the wider region.

Upcoming plans

There is no evidence that a national dementia strategy or plan will be produced by competent Yemeni authorities soon. While the Yemen Foundation Against ALZ Dementia (YFAAD) advocates for greater engagement on the matter from the authorities, they currently lack the resources for creating a comprehensive dementia management system in a conflict-ridden society.

Policy gaps

Legal barriers

Dementia management in Yemen is defined by a profound policy vacuum, where the most significant gap is the complete absence of a national dementia strategy, leaving the condition unrecognized as a public health priority. This foundational void leads to a cascade of critical issues — there are no standardized diagnostic or care pathways, no specialized services like memory clinics or geriatric wards, and little training for healthcare professionals in dementia care. These interconnected gaps create a landscape of near total neglect, making a formal, supportive response to dementia impossible within the current context of conflict and systemic collapse.

Cultural barriers

The collapse of the health care system in light of the Yemeni Civil War has shifted the entire care onto families, who receive no financial assistance, social protection, or respite support from the state.

Research

Yemen has no active dementia research, clinical trials, or patient registries, and universities like Sana’a, Hadhramout, and Aden focus on general medical education, while YFAAD prioritises awareness and basic support over scientific studies.

Clinical trials and registries

There are no active or past clinical trials related to dementia or Alzheimer’s disease registered in Yemen. Global clinical trial databases, such as ClinicalTrials.gov, contain no records of any such studies being conducted in the country (as of 2025).

Furthermore, there are no formal patient registries for dementia in Yemen. There is no foundational data to understand the prevalence, incidence, or characteristics of dementia within the Yemeni population.

Selected innovative methods

There is no evidence of dementia research being actively conducted in Yemen. The primary advocate for people living with dementia in the country, the Yemen Foundation against Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia (YFAAD), focuses on awareness and basic support rather than scientific research, as the latter is quite resource intensive, especially in an environment lacking such resources.

Support

Organizations are listed for informational purposes based on publicly available sources. Inclusion does not necessarily indicate affiliation with or endorsement by Alzheimer’s Disease International (ADI).

Dementia support in Yemen is primarily coordinated by YFAAD, which provides awareness events, caregiver consultations, training, and referrals, supported by universities, NGOs, and pharmaceutical partners. Additional assistance comes from PCF centres in Ibb and Taiz for women’s psychosocial care and LMMPO for older adults’ welfare. Dedicated media outlets are lacking and YFAAD’s online resources have limited reach due to costly internet access.

Selected national associations, patient family associations, NGOs:

Yemen Foundation Against ALZ Dementia (YFAAD)

Selected initiatives

Dementia support in Yemen is primarily coordinated by YFAAD, offering public awareness, caregiver consultations, training sessions, emotional support gatherings, and referrals to specialists, usually through WhatsApp. Their initiatives are supported by universities, NGOs, and pharmaceutical partners. Additional support comes from the Psychiatric Care Developmental Foundation in Ibb and Taiz, which focuses on psychosocial care for women, and HelpAge International’s LMMPO, which advocates for older adults’ welfare, including food security and income.

Yemen Foundation Against ALZ Dementia (YFAAD)
Yemen Foundation Against ALZ Dementia (YFAAD) is a national non-profit association which organises and supports activities related to the institution of a management system for Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias in Yemen. Some of their activities include the organization of (1) outreach and public awareness events, (2) carer trainings, (3) support events for and meetings with carers, (4) counselling sessions, as well as the provision of (1) integrated care plans for families of people living with dementia, (2) referral services to other medical specialists, and the creation of bridges between medical professionals and families seeking support for their members living with Alzheimer’s disease. In its work, YFAAD is supported by Yemeni institutions of higher learning, international pharmaceutical companies and NGOs.
Caregiving training course
Support initiatives catering to people living with dementia, their families and care partners are primarily organised through the Yemen Foundation Against ALZ Dementia (YFAAD) umbrella. Most prominently, the YFAAD offered a caregiving training course, primarily intended for medical professionals. However, the frequency at which training is organised by the YFAAD is unclear.
Awareness-raising events
In addition, the YFAAD organised a number of awareness-raising events across Yemeni institutions of higher learning, health facilities and pharmaceutical companies. While these take place throughout the year, a majority of them are clustered around World Alzheimer’s Month, in September. Attendances at such events tend to be between 20 to 100 people.
Consultations
To support caregivers, the YFAAD offers consultations to them, and organises gatherings where they can meet and exchange experiences. They organise another type of gatherings for caregivers, which they title “emotional venting gatherings”. The YFAAD also organised a WhatsApp group for care partners, to keep a channel of communication open between them in a time of exceptional difficulty for Yemen. Seemingly, much of the information about YFAAD events, as well as consultations on matters pertaining to caring for people living with dementia, occur through WhatsApp.
The Psychiatric Care Developmental Foundation (PCF)
The Psychiatric Care Developmental Foundation (PCF) has been running two mental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS) centres in Ibb and Taiz Governorates, while cooperating with two other health institutions, Al Thawrah General Hospital in Sana’a and the Neuropsychiatric Teaching Hospital in Aden. These centres primarily provide support to women and girls, through services such as psychiatric consultations and related examinations, providing psychotropic medications, in-patient admission, advanced individual psychological support, rehabilitative services, provision of psychological first aid, structured group-based support activities, family or carer psychosocial support, facilitation of community reintegration of beneficiaries etc.
HelpAge International
HelpAge International, through its Yemeni partner organization, the Life Makers Meeting Place organization (LMMPO) organised dialogue sessions with relevant stakeholders in the Hadramaut Governorate, during which challenges faced by older people in Yemen were discussed, with a pronounced focus on income security and food access. While LMMPO is an organization which broadly advocates for the rights of older people, their efforts are a crucial lifeline for a demographic that includes a majority of people living with dementia in Yemen.

Dedicated media outlets

Currently, there are no dedicated media outlets for people living with dementia, their families and care partners. However, the Yemen Foundation Against ALZ Dementia (YFAAD) maintains a number of resources on Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias. They are quite active on their Facebook page, informing the public of their activities, and occasionally sharing content on dementia, its causes and consequences. On their website, one can also find informative resources on these matters, both in English and Arabic. However, these resources are rather limited, and considering that Internet access in Yemen is expensive and difficult, it is unlikely that their reach is significant.

Understanding the terms

This section explains key terms used throughout the text to help readers better understand the exploration concepts.
Open Term Glossary
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Contents

Understanding the Terms

Terms used throughout this website are explained below.
A

Amyloid-Targeting Therapies (ATT): A class of disease-modifying treatments, primarily monoclonal antibodies, designed to identify and remove amyloid-beta plaques from the brain to slow cognitive and functional decline in early-stage Alzheimer’s. Examples include Lecanemab and Donanemab.

Aphasia: A language disorder that affects a person’s ability to communicate, often seen early in Frontotemporal Dementia.

APOE ε4 Allele: A genetic variant of the Apolipoprotein E gene that is a major risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer’s disease; while not a causative gene, its presence increases the likelihood of developing the condition.

Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors: A class of medications, including Donepezil, Rivastigmine, and Galantamine, used to treat cognitive symptoms by increasing levels of chemical messengers in the brain.

Advance Directives (DAT): Legal documents, such as Disposizioni Anticipate di Trattamento in Italy, that allow individuals to specify their future medical treatment and care preferences while they still have the capacity to do so.

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD): The most common cause of dementia, characterized by a progressive neurodegenerative decline caused by the accumulation of amyloid plaques and tau tangles in the brain.

Amyloid-beta Plaques: Protein fragments that build up in the spaces between nerve cells, disrupting communication and triggering immune responses.

Amyloid PET Scan: A specialized nuclear imaging test that uses radioactive tracers to visualize and measure the density of amyloid-beta plaques in the living brain.

Atrophy: The wasting away or shrinking of brain tissue, often measured via MRI to support a clinical diagnosis of dementia or Alzheimer’s.

B

Biomarkers: Measurable biological indicators, such as proteins found in blood or cerebrospinal fluid, used to identify the underlying pathology of a disease.

Blood Biomarkers: Emerging, less-invasive diagnostic tests that measure specific proteins like p-tau or neurofilament levels in blood plasma to detect Alzheimer’s pathology.

C

CSF Analysis (Cerebrospinal Fluid): A diagnostic procedure involving a lumbar puncture to measure levels of tau and amyloid-beta proteins in the fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

CT Scan (Computed Tomography): A diagnostic imaging test using X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the brain; used primarily to rule out other causes of cognitive decline such as tumors or strokes.

Clock Drawing Test (CDT): A brief cognitive screening task where a patient is asked to ask to draw a clock face; it evaluates visuospatial and executive function.

Cognitive Screening: The process of using standardized tests to objectively measure an individual’s mental functions, such as memory, orientation, and attention.

Community-based Care: Healthcare and support services provided within the local community, such as daycare centers, home-based nursing, and local support groups, rather than in institutional settings.

Cube Copying Test: A visuospatial assessment task used during neuropsychological evaluations to test a patient’s ability to replicate geometric shapes.

D

Dementia: An umbrella term for a range of neurological conditions characterized by a decline in memory, language, and thinking skills severe enough to interfere with daily life.

Dementia-friendly Society: A community or national environment where citizens and businesses are trained to understand, respect, and support the needs of people living with dementia.

Disease-modifying Therapies (DMTs): A new class of treatments, such as monoclonal antibodies (e.g., Lecanemab), designed to target the underlying biological causes of Alzheimer’s rather than just managing symptoms.

E

Early-Onset Alzheimer’s: A form of the disease that affects people younger than age 65, often linked to the familial genes.

Executive Function: Higher-level mental skills including planning, focusing, and multitasking; these are often what the Clock Drawing Test evaluates.

F

FDG-PET: A type of PET scan that measures glucose metabolism in the brain to identify patterns characteristic of different dementia subtypes.

Familial Alzheimer’s Disease: A rare, genetic form of the disease linked to mutations in specific genes (APP, PSEN1, PSEN2) that typically presents with early-onset symptoms.

Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD): A type of dementia caused by progressive nerve cell loss in the frontal or temporal lobes, leading to significant changes in behavior, personality, and language.

G

General Practitioner (GP): A primary care physician who acts as the first point of contact and gatekeeper for dementia diagnosis, providing initial assessments and referrals to specialists.

Genotyping: The analysis of an individual’s DNA to identify specific genetic variations associated with dementia risk or causation.

H

Hidden Cost: The indirect economic impacts of dementia, such as the loss of income for family members who must reduce working hours or leave their jobs to provide care.

I

Informal Care / Informal Caregiver: Unpaid care provided by family members, spouses, or friends, which represents the vast majority of long-term support for people living with dementia.

J

Japanese Cognitive Function Test (J-Cog): A specialized cognitive assessment tool used to evaluate mental and functional status in specific research or regional contexts.

L

Lewy Body Dementia (LBD): A type of progressive dementia that leads to a decline in thinking, reasoning, and independent function due to abnormal microscopic deposits that damage brain cells.

Long-Term Care Insurance (LTCI): A specialized branch of insurance, found in systems like Germany and Singapore, that provides financial subsidies for daily living assistance and nursing care.

M

Memory Clinic: A specialized, often multidisciplinary center focused on the expert diagnosis, management, and treatment of dementia and cognitive disorders.

Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI): An intermediate stage between normal aging and dementia where memory or thinking problems are noticeable but don’t yet prevent daily functioning.

Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE): A 30-point standardized questionnaire used to measure cognitive impairment by testing orientation, recall, and attention.

Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA): A cognitive screening tool designed to be more sensitive than the MMSE, particularly for identifying Mild Cognitive Impairment.

MRI Scan (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): A non-invasive technology using magnetic fields to produce detailed images of brain structure; used to assess brain atrophy and rule out secondary causes.

N

National Dementia Plan: A formal government strategy outlining a coordinated response to manage dementia diagnosis, care, research, and awareness at a national level.

National Health Insurance (NHI): A government-funded or regulated healthcare system providing universal or subsidized medical services to citizens.

Neuroimaging: The use of advanced techniques, such as CT, MRI, and PET, to visualize the structure and function of the brain for diagnostic purposes.

Neuroinflammation: The brain’s immune response to damage or protein buildup; while initially protective, chronic inflammation can accelerate neurodegeneration.

O

Out-of-Pocket Costs: Direct payments made by patients or their families for medical services, tests, or care that are not covered by insurance or public subsidies.

P

Preclinical Alzheimer’s: The stage where brain changes (like amyloid buildup) are present but no outward symptoms are yet visible.

S

Synaptic Loss: The destruction of synapses (the gaps where neurons communicate), which is often the strongest correlate to cognitive decline.

T

Tau Tangles: Twisted fibers of a protein called tau that build up inside nerve cells, destroying the cell’s transport system.

V

Vascular Dementia: The second most common type of dementia, caused by conditions that block or reduce blood flow to the brain, like strokes.